The Rashtrakuta Empire

The Rashtrakuta Empire was one of the most powerful kingdoms in early medieval India. From its base in the Deccan, it ruled for over two centuries, from 753 to the 970s. Its armies marched as far north as the Ganga and as far south as the Kaveri, and Arab travellers counted it among the four great empires of the world. The Rashtrakutas also gave India the Kailasa temple at Ellora, carved out of a single hill, and some of the first great works of Kannada literature. This post explains who they were, their main kings, what they built and why they fell.

Our old post on this topic was short and gave credit for some monuments that experts do not link to this dynasty. We have rewritten it in plain English and checked the facts against standard history references.

Who Were the Rashtrakutas?

The name Rashtrakuta was used by several ruling families in central and western India in the sixth and seventh centuries. One copper plate grant names a Rashtrakuta ruler at Manpur in Malwa, and others mention Rashtrakuta chiefs at Achalapura, now Elichpur in Maharashtra. Historians still debate whether these families were related, and where the dynasty first came from.

The famous imperial line is known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, after their later capital. Manyakheta is today the town of Malkhed in the Kalaburagi district of Karnataka.

Rise to Power

The Rashtrakutas began as feudatories, or junior rulers, under the Chalukyas of Badami. Around 753, the Rashtrakuta chief Dantidurga, who probably ruled from Achalapura, defeated the Chalukya king Kirtivarman II and took over the northern parts of his kingdom. A copper plate grant from Samangadh records this victory. Read about the dynasty they replaced in our post on the Chalukya dynasty.

Dantidurga also helped his son in law, the Pallava king Nandivarman II, win back Kanchi, and he fought the Gurjaras and rulers in Kalinga and Kosala.

Great Kings of the Rashtrakuta Empire

Krishna I

Dantidurga’s successor, Krishna I, finished the conquest of the Chalukya lands and brought most of present day Karnataka and the Konkan coast under his rule. He is best remembered as the king generally credited with the Kailasa temple at Ellora.

Dhruva Dharavarsha

Dhruva came to power in 780 and turned the kingdom into an empire stretching from the Kaveri River to central India. He led a bold campaign to Kannauj, the great city of the north, where he defeated both the Pratiharas and the Palas. He came back with fame and treasure, though not with new land in the north.

Govinda III

Dhruva chose his third son, Govinda III, as heir because of his ability. Govinda defeated the Pratihara king Nagabhata II and the Pala king Dharmapala. His Sanjan inscription boasts that his horses drank from icy Himalayan streams and his elephants tasted the waters of the Ganga. In the south, he humbled the Pallavas of Kanchi and placed a ruler of his choice in Vengi.

Amoghavarsha I

Amoghavarsha I ruled from 814 until 878, a reign of more than sixty years. He made Manyakheta his capital, and it remained the royal seat until the end of the empire. Unlike his father, he preferred peace and built ties with his neighbours through marriage. He was also a scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit, and he is often seen as the most famous king of the dynasty.

Indra III and Krishna III

Indra III revived Rashtrakuta power in the early tenth century, defeating Malwa and again raiding the Ganga Yamuna region. Krishna III, the last great king, pushed south into Tamil country. Around 949 he won a major victory over the Cholas at the Battle of Takkolam, where the Chola prince Rajaditya was killed. He then took tribute from the Pandya and Chera rulers.

The Struggle for Kannauj

Between the eighth and tenth centuries, three powers fought over the rich plains of the Ganga and the city of Kannauj. They were the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, the Palas of Bengal and the Pratiharas of the north west. Historians call this the Tripartite Struggle. Each power held or controlled Kannauj for short periods, but none kept it for long. To learn about one of the other rivals, see our post on the Pala Empire.

Praise From Arab Travellers

Arab merchants and writers who visited India left glowing accounts of the Rashtrakutas. In 851, the Arab writer Sulaiman described the Rashtrakuta kingdom as one of the four great empires of the world. Later writers such as Al Masudi and Ibn Khordadbeh also called the Rashtrakuta kingdom the largest in India. The Rashtrakutas kept friendly ties with Arab traders, who brought horses and goods to western Indian ports.

Government and Economy

The empire was divided into provinces called rashtras, which were split into smaller districts and groups of villages. Amoghavarsha I is said to have had sixteen rashtras. A standing army was kept ready at the capital. The chief minister held high rank, with special symbols of office such as a flag, a conch and a white umbrella. Some women held high office too. Amoghavarsha’s daughter Revakanimaddi, for example, governed a district.

Trade made the empire rich. Gujarat, Ujjain, Paithan and other towns were known for textiles, and cotton cloth from the Deccan was sent to Persia, Arabia and Egypt. Diamonds were mined in the region, and Manyakheta was a centre for jewellery trade.

Art and Architecture

The Kailasa Temple at Ellora

The greatest Rashtrakuta monument is the Kailasa temple, also called Cave 16, at Ellora in Maharashtra. It is the largest of the 34 Hindu, Buddhist and Jain caves at the site. Instead of building with blocks, the carvers cut the whole temple out of a single basalt hill, working from the top down. Most scholars credit Krishna I with starting it in the eighth century, though there is no dedicatory inscription and later kings added parts. Read more in our post on the Ajanta and Ellora caves.

Pattadakal

At Pattadakal in Karnataka, a UNESCO World Heritage Site best known for its Chalukya temples, the last temple in the group is the Jain Narayana temple. It was likely built in the ninth century, possibly under the Rashtrakuta king Krishna II.

Literature and Learning

The Rashtrakuta age was a golden period for Kannada and Sanskrit writing, much of it by Jain scholars.

• Kavirajamarga: Written by Amoghavarsha I, possibly with help from his court poets, it is the earliest surviving Kannada work on poetics and became a guide for later writers.
• Prashnottara Ratnamalika: A Sanskrit work of moral questions and answers, linked to Amoghavarsha and later translated into Tibetan.
• Ganita Sara Sangraha: A mathematics text written around 850 by the Jain mathematician Mahaviracharya, who praised Amoghavarsha in its opening verses.
• Ponna: A Kannada Jain poet honoured by Krishna III with the title Ubhaya Kavi Chakravarti, emperor of poets in two languages.

Religion

The Rashtrakuta kings supported Hindu temples, as the Kailasa temple shows, but they also gave strong support to Jainism. Jain teachers such as Jinasena, Virasena and Gunabhadra were linked to the court. Historians debate whether the later kings became Jains or simply patronised Jain scholars while still worshipping Hindu gods.

Decline and Fall

After Krishna III died, the empire weakened quickly. In 972, the Paramara king Siyaka of Malwa attacked and plundered Manyakheta. Soon after, Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, declared himself independent and founded what became the Western Chalukya kingdom. The last Rashtrakuta king, Indra IV, gave up the throne and ended his life by the Jain fast of sallekhana at Shravanabelagola in 982. Read what came next in our post on the Western Chalukyas.

Branches and Successors

Several families claimed links to the Rashtrakutas and kept the name alive after the empire fell. Among them were the Rashtrakutas of Gujarat, who ruled from 757 to 888, and the Rattas of Saundatti in Karnataka. Later families such as the Gahadavalas of Kannauj and the Rathores of Rajasthan are also sometimes linked to the wider Rashtrakuta name.

Key Facts at a Glance

• Period: about 753 to 982, with the empire collapsing in the 970s.
• Founder: Dantidurga.
• Capital: Manyakheta, now Malkhed in Kalaburagi district.
• Famous kings: Dhruva, Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I and Krishna III.
• Best known monument: the Kailasa temple at Ellora.
• Successor state: the Western Chalukyas under Tailapa II.

What We Changed From the Old Post

We rewrote the post in plain English and organised it around the main kings, the Kannauj struggle, culture and decline.

We removed the claim that the Elephanta Caves were a Rashtrakuta work, since most experts date them earlier. We kept only the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal as a Rashtrakuta building there. We also made clear that their base began at Achalapura and later moved to Manyakheta.

We added sections on Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III, Arab accounts, trade and literature.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who founded the Rashtrakuta Empire?

Dantidurga founded the imperial line around 753 by defeating the Chalukya king Kirtivarman II.

What was the capital of the Rashtrakutas?

Manyakheta, now Malkhed in Karnataka, became the capital under Amoghavarsha I.

Which famous temple did the Rashtrakutas build?

The Kailasa temple, Cave 16 at Ellora, is their best known monument.

Who wrote the Kavirajamarga?

It is credited to the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I, possibly with his court scholars.