The Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was a large state based in Delhi that ruled much of north India, and at times parts of the south, for more than three hundred years. It began in 1206 and ended in 1526. Five different dynasties held the throne in that time. This post explains how the sultanate began, who its main rulers were, what changed under them and how it ended.
Our older post on this topic was hard to read and even had leftover computer code at the end. We have rewritten it in simple English and checked the facts against standard histories.
Table of Contents
How the Sultanate Began
In the late twelfth century, Muhammad of Ghor, a ruler from present day Afghanistan, led armies into north India. In 1191 he lost a battle at Tarain, in present day Haryana, to a Rajput alliance led by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer. In 1192 he returned and won a second battle at the same place. Read about the Rajput king in our post on Prithviraj Chauhan.
Muhammad of Ghor left his Indian lands in the hands of trusted generals who had been slaves in his service. After his death, one of them, Qutb ud Din Aibak, became the first sultan in 1206.
The Five Dynasties
Historians divide the sultanate into five periods:
- Mamluk or Slave dynasty: 1206 to 1290.
- Khalji dynasty: 1290 to 1320.
- Tughlaq dynasty: 1320 to 1414.
- Sayyid dynasty: 1414 to 1451.
- Lodi dynasty: 1451 to 1526.
The Mamluk Sultans
Qutb ud Din Aibak
Aibak began building the Qutb Minar in Delhi, but he died before it was finished. He also built the Quwwat ul Islam mosque nearby. Learn more about the tower in our post on the history of Qutub Minar.
Iltutmish
After a short reign by Aram Shah, power passed in 1211 to Iltutmish, Aibak’s son in law. Iltutmish made Delhi a firm capital. He beat rival commanders, took Multan and Bengal, and won back forts such as Ranthambore. He completed the Qutb Minar. His tomb in the same complex was built by 1236.
Razia Sultan
Iltutmish chose his daughter Razia as his heir. She ruled from 1236 to 1240 and was the first woman to rule the Delhi Sultanate, one of the few female rulers in Islamic history. Many nobles opposed her, and she was removed from power in 1240.
Balban
Ghiyas ud Din Balban ruled from 1266 to 1287. He broke the power of a group of nobles called the Forty, who had controlled earlier sultans. He ruled with a strong hand and guarded the north west against the Mongols.
The Khalji Dynasty
The Khaljis took the throne in 1290. Their most famous ruler, Alauddin Khalji, ruled from 1296 to 1316.
Wars Against the Mongols
Alauddin’s reign saw repeated Mongol attacks from the Chagatai Khanate of Central Asia. His armies defeated these invasions several times between 1297 and 1306. The Delhi Sultanate was one of the few powers of that age to stop the Mongols.
Expansion and Reforms
Alauddin conquered Gujarat and strong forts in Rajasthan. His general Malik Kafur led campaigns deep into south India and brought back great wealth.
Alauddin also made bold economic changes. He raised the land tax to half of the crop. He replaced private markets with four central markets run by the state, appointed a market controller and fixed prices for many goods. These rules helped him pay a large army.
He also built the Alai Darwaza, a fine gateway at the Qutb complex, in 1311.
When Alauddin died in 1316, his general Malik Kafur took real power for a short time. Malik Kafur had been born into a Hindu family and later converted to Islam. Within a few years the Khalji line ended in court struggles.
The Tughlaq Dynasty
Ghiyath al Din Tughlaq founded this line in 1320 and built the fort town of Tughlaqabad near Delhi. Under his son, the sultanate reached its largest size.
Muhammad bin Tughluq
Muhammad bin Tughluq ruled from 1325 to 1351. He is remembered for daring but troubled plans. He made Deogiri in Maharashtra, renamed Daulatabad, a second capital and forced many people from Delhi to move there.
Around 1330 he issued token coins of brass and copper that were meant to have the same value as silver coins. Many people made fake coins, and the plan failed.
Revolts broke out in many provinces. In 1347 nobles in the Deccan broke away and founded the Bahmani Sultanate.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Firuz Shah Tughlaq ruled from 1351 to 1388. He was the longest ruling sultan of the dynasty and its greatest builder. He did not try to win back the Deccan.
Firuz Shah tried to win back Bengal and fought there for eleven months in 1359, but Bengal stayed independent.
Timur’s Raid
After Firuz Shah, the sultanate weakened. In 1398 the Central Asian conqueror Timur attacked and sacked Delhi. The sultanate never fully recovered its old power.
The Sayyids and the Lodis
The Sayyid dynasty began with Khizr Khan, who first ruled as a vassal of Timur’s successors. The Sayyids controlled only a small area around Delhi.
By this time several regional states had grown strong across India. They included the Vijayanagara Empire and the Kingdom of Mewar, as well as new sultanates in Bengal and the Deccan.
In 1451 Bahlul Lodi, an Afghan noble, took power and founded the Lodi dynasty.
Bahlul Lodi attacked the Jaunpur Sultanate to the east to spread Delhi’s power, with partial success.
His son Sikandar Lodi ruled from 1489 to 1517. He drove his brother Barbak Shah out of Jaunpur and moved his court from Delhi to Agra. The last sultan, Ibrahim Lodi, did not have the support of many nobles and regional chiefs.
The End of the Sultanate
In 1526 Babur, a ruler from Central Asia descended from Timur, invaded north India. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim died in the battle and the Delhi Sultanate came to an end. Read the full story in our post on the First Battle of Panipat.
Babur founded the Mughal Empire, which would rule much of India for the next two centuries. See our post on the Mughal Dynasty.
Government and Society
The sultan was the head of state and army. He ruled with nobles of many backgrounds, including Turks, Afghans and Indian Muslims. The sultans also accepted many Hindu officials and vassal chiefs. Distant governors often had wide freedom, because travel was slow and the Mongol danger kept the sultans busy in the north west.
The period also saw violence. Some campaigns involved the destruction of Hindu and Buddhist temples and of centres of learning, and these events are recorded in the sources.
Ziauddin Barani and other writers of the time left Persian histories of the sultans. These chronicles are among the main sources for the period, though they often reflect the views of the court.
Culture and Architecture
The sultanate drew India closer to the wider Islamic world of trade, learning and travel. The Hindustani language grew in this period from the mix of local speech with Persian and other words.
A new Indo Islamic style of building also took shape. It used arches, domes and fine stone carving. The Qutb Minar, the Alai Darwaza and the many buildings of Firuz Shah are examples. The Qutb complex in Delhi is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Builders slowly learned to make true arches with wedge shaped stones. The ruined tomb of Balban in Delhi, who died in 1287, may be the earliest surviving example of this method in India.
Students can remember the order of the five dynasties with the first letters M, K, T, S and L, for Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi.
Visitors to Delhi can still see sultanate monuments such as the Qutb complex, Tughlaqabad fort and the tombs of the Sayyid and Lodi periods in Lodhi Garden.
Key Dates at a Glance
- 1192: Second Battle of Tarain.
- 1206: Aibak becomes the first sultan.
- 1236 to 1240: Reign of Razia Sultan.
- 1296 to 1316: Reign of Alauddin Khalji.
- 1347: Bahmani Sultanate breaks away.
- 1398: Timur sacks Delhi.
- 1526: Babur wins at Panipat.
What We Changed From the Old Post
The old post used strange word swaps and ended with a block of leftover computer style code. We removed the code and rewrote the article in plain English.
We added the five dynasties with dates, the 1191 and 1192 battles at Tarain, the Qutb Minar story, Razia Sultan, Balban, Alauddin’s markets and Mongol wars, the token coins, Timur’s raid, the Lodis and the cultural legacy.
We left out exact battle days and some later events that we could not confirm in our sources.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who founded the Delhi Sultanate?
Qutb ud Din Aibak became the first sultan in 1206, after the death of his master Muhammad of Ghor.
How many dynasties ruled the Delhi Sultanate?
Five: the Mamluk, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi dynasties.
Who was the only woman sultan of Delhi?
Razia Sultan, who ruled from 1236 to 1240.
How did the Delhi Sultanate end?
Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and founded the Mughal Empire.