The Chola Dynasty

The Chola dynasty was one of the oldest and most powerful royal houses of south India. From their home in the fertile Kaveri valley, the Chola kings built an empire that reached across the sea to Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia. They also built some of the grandest temples in India. This post explains who the Cholas were, how they rose, what they achieved and why they declined.

Our older post on the Cholas was hard to read. We have rewritten it in simple English, added clear dates and checked the facts against standard histories.

Who Were the Cholas?

The Cholas were a Tamil dynasty. Together with the Cheras and the Pandyas, they were one of the three ruling families of the ancient Tamil country, known as the Three Crowned Kings.

Their heartland was the rich valley of the Kaveri River in present day Tamil Nadu. The river gave water for rice fields, and its delta opened onto the Bay of Bengal, giving access to sea trade.

The Early Cholas

The earliest dated mention of the Cholas comes from the edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, carved in the third century BCE. One of his rock edicts names the Cholas as neighbours to the south who were not under his rule but were on friendly terms with him.

The Cholas also appear in the ancient Tamil poems known as Sangam literature, as well as in temple and copper plate records. You can learn about this early literature in our post on the Tamil language.

Little is known about the Cholas for several centuries after the early period. Written evidence about them before the seventh century is limited.

The Rise of the Imperial Cholas

The Cholas rose again in the middle of the ninth century. These rulers are often called the Medieval or Imperial Cholas. From 907 to 1215 they united the whole of peninsular India south of the Tungabhadra River and held it as one state.

Rajaraja I

Rajaraja I, also called Rajaraja the Great, ruled from 985 to 1014. He conquered much of south India and the Anuradhapura kingdom of Sri Lanka. His naval campaigns also captured the Maldives and the Malabar coast.

Rajaraja was a careful ruler as well as a soldier. In the year 1000 he started a large survey and assessment of land.

Rajaraja also supported Tamil devotional literature. During his reign, hymns by the poets Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar were gathered into one collection known as the Thirumurai. For this he earned the title Thirumurai Kanda Cholar, the Chola who found the Thirumurai.

This land survey reorganised the Tamil country into units called valanadus. These units made it easier to measure land, fix taxes and keep records across a large empire.

His greatest monument is the Brihadisvara temple in Thanjavur, built between 1003 and 1010. Its granite tower over the shrine is one of the tallest in south India. The temple turned one thousand years old in 2010. Read about the town in our post on Thanjavur.

Visitors to the Thanjavur temple can still see the Nandi hall in front of the main shrine and the long pillared corridor around the courtyard.

Rajendra I

Rajaraja’s son Rajendra I made the empire even larger. He completed the conquest of Sri Lanka. Then he sent an army north through Odisha to Bengal, where he defeated the Pala king and reached the river Ganga. Learn about the Palas in our post on the Pala Empire.

To mark this victory, Rajendra built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram, meaning the city of the Chola who took the Ganga. He built a great temple there, similar to the one at Thanjavur, and a large artificial lake.

Other major Chola towns included Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now Kumbakonam. After Rajendra moved the capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur slowly lost its political importance, though its temple remained a great centre of worship.

The Chola Navy and Southeast Asia

The Cholas were rare among Indian dynasties because of their strong navy. In 1025 Rajendra’s forces crossed the Bay of Bengal and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom, which controlled key sea routes in present day Indonesia and Malaysia. The fleet raided Kadaram, now Kedah, and other ports.

After this campaign Rajendra took the title Kadaram Kondan, meaning he who took Kedah. The raid did not set up lasting Chola rule there, but it weakened Srivijaya and helped Tamil merchants expand their trade in the region.

Relations with Srivijaya were not always hostile. In the time of Rajaraja, a Srivijaya king built a Buddhist monastery called the Chudamani Vihara at Nagapattinam, showing that trade and faith also linked the two powers.

Chola contacts left marks on the culture of Southeast Asia. Temples in places such as Java share some features with south Indian temple styles.

Trade was an old strength of the Chola country. In early times Kaveripoompattinam, near the mouth of the Kaveri, and Nagapattinam were the leading ports. The Greek geographer Ptolemy knew of them, and Roman coins from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.

How the Empire Was Governed

The Chola king ruled with the help of officials, ministers and a large army. The empire was divided into provinces, districts and village groups.

Villages had a strong role in local affairs. Inscriptions at Uttaramerur, near Kanchipuram, dated 919 and 921 CE, describe rules for choosing members of village committees. The village had two assemblies. One, called the Sabha, was made up of Brahmins. The other, called the Ur, was open to people of all classes. These records are often cited as early evidence of organised local self rule in India.

Water management was another strength. In the eleventh century the Tamil country completed its first major irrigation network, near Thanjavur. It served farming, the movement of goods and the control of water flow through the town.

Temples and Art

The Cholas were great temple builders. Their temples were places of worship and also centres of the local economy, where land, gifts, food and jobs were managed.

Three Chola temples are listed together as a UNESCO World Heritage Site called the Great Living Chola Temples:

• The Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur, built by Rajaraja I.
• The temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by Rajendra I.
• The Airavatesvara temple at Darasuram near Kumbakonam, built under Rajaraja II.

Chola Bronzes

The Chola period is also famous for bronze sculpture. Far more bronze images were made in this age than before. The best known is the figure of Shiva as Nataraja, the lord of dance. Many bronzes were made to be carried out of temples in festivals and processions, dressed in fine cloth and jewels.

Rivals and Allies

The Cholas fought many wars with the Chalukyas of the Deccan, especially the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. You can read about them in our post on the Chalukya Dynasty.

With the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, the Cholas built close ties through marriage. Rajendra’s daughter Ammanga Devi married the Vengi prince Rajaraja Narendra. Their son became the Chola emperor Kulothunga I in 1070. This began the period of the Later Cholas, which lasted until 1279.

Decline and End

The Later Cholas held their lands well for many years. But early in the thirteenth century, the Pandyas grew strong again. The Chola king Kulothunga III was defeated by the Pandya ruler Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II around 1215 and 1216. After that, Chola power declined. The Pandyas became the leading power in the south, and the last Chola ruler, Rajendra III, ended the line in 1279.

Key Dates at a Glance

• Third century BCE: Cholas named in the edicts of Ashoka.
• 907 to 1215: Cholas hold south India as one state.
• 985 to 1014: Reign of Rajaraja I.
• 1010: Brihadisvara temple completed at Thanjavur.
• 1025: Naval raid on Srivijaya.
• 1070: Kulothunga I begins the Later Chola line.
• 1279: End of the Chola line.

Students can remember the Chola peak with two names and two places: Rajaraja at Thanjavur and Rajendra at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

What We Changed From the Old Post

The old post used odd word swaps and long, unclear sentences. We rewrote it in plain English with clear sections.

We added the Ashokan edict mention, the 907 to 1215 unity, Rajaraja’s reign dates and land survey, the Brihadisvara dates, the 1025 Srivijaya raid, Uttaramerur village rules, the UNESCO temple list, Chola bronzes and the Pandya defeat.

We removed claims we could not confirm, such as the attack on present day Bangladesh and the exact frontier lines.

Frequently Asked Questions

Who was the greatest Chola king?

Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I are usually seen as the greatest. Rajaraja built the Thanjavur temple and Rajendra reached the Ganga and Southeast Asia.

What was the Chola capital?

Thanjavur was the capital under Rajaraja I. Rajendra I later built a new capital at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Why is the Chola navy famous?

It carried Chola armies to Sri Lanka, the Maldives and Southeast Asia, including the 1025 raid on Srivijaya.

When did the Chola dynasty end?

Its power declined after about 1216, and the line ended in 1279 when the Pandyas became the main power in the south.