The British Raj
The British Raj was the period when the British Crown ruled the Indian subcontinent directly. It lasted from 1858 to 1947. In these ninety years India got railways, new laws, new universities and a new political class. It also suffered terrible famines and a long struggle for freedom. This post explains how the Raj began, how it worked and how it ended.
Our older post was hard to read and had a few doubtful numbers. We have rewritten it in simple English, kept the main topics and checked the facts against standard histories.
Table of Contents
How the British Raj Began
Before 1858, much of India was ruled by the British East India Company, a trading company that had slowly become a ruling power. You can read about that period in our post on the expansion of British East India Company rule in India.
In 1857 a large revolt broke out across north India. It began among Indian soldiers of the Company army and spread to many towns and rural areas. After the revolt was put down, the British Parliament decided the Company could no longer rule. On 28 June 1858 power passed to the Crown, in the person of Queen Victoria. Learn more about the revolt in our post on the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
In 1876 Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. The word Raj comes from the Hindustani word for rule or government.
What the Raj Covered
The Raj covered almost all of present day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Burma, now Myanmar, was also part of British India until 1937, when it became a separate colony. Small areas such as Goa, held by Portugal, and Pondicherry, held by France, stayed outside.
British India and the Princely States
The Raj had two kinds of territory. British India was ruled directly by British officials. The princely states were ruled by Indian kings, called rajas, maharajas or nawabs, who accepted British supremacy. There were hundreds of such states. Some, like Hyderabad and Mysore, were large. Many were very small.
How the Raj Was Run
At the top stood the Viceroy, who represented the Crown in India. In London, a Secretary of State for India oversaw policy. The capital in India was Calcutta until 1911, when King George V announced at the Delhi Durbar that the capital would move to Delhi.
Day to day rule rested on the Indian Civil Service. For many years most of its senior officers were British. Over time more Indians joined, and by 1945 Indians were the majority in the service.
Law and Courts
The Raj built a single legal system across British India. The Indian Penal Code was drafted under a Law Commission chaired by Thomas Babington Macaulay. It was passed in 1860 and came into force in 1862. It stayed in use in independent India until it was replaced by the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita from 1 July 2024.
Education
Universities were set up in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857. By 1890 about 60,000 Indians had passed the matriculation exam, mostly in arts or law. Many joined government service or became lawyers. This educated group later led the national movement.
Railways and the Economy
British India built a modern railway system in the late nineteenth century. It became the fourth largest in the world. The Raj also invested in canals, roads, telegraph lines and ports.
Railways cut the cost of moving goods and helped Indian owned industry begin to grow. They were also used to carry famine relief. Yet many farmers became tied to distant markets, and some lost land and animals to money lenders when prices fell.
Historians still argue about the economic effect of British rule. Nationalist writers argued that India grew poorer under the Raj and that wealth flowed to Britain. Others point to the new transport network and the growth of some industries. The debate continues today.
Famines Under the Raj
India suffered many severe famines during this period. The worst was the Great Famine of 1876 to 1878. It began after a drought caused crops to fail in the Deccan. It hit Madras, Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad and other regions. Estimates of deaths vary widely, from about 5.6 million to more than 10 million.
Another major famine struck in 1899 and 1900. Critics, both Indian and British, blamed slow and rigid government policies for making the suffering worse.
After the Great Famine, a Famine Commission reported in 1880. It led to the Indian Famine Codes, early rules for spotting and fighting famine. Versions of these codes were used in many countries for decades.
The Rise of Indian Politics
By the 1880s a new middle class had formed across India. On 28 December 1885 a group of professionals and thinkers founded the Indian National Congress. It began as a moderate body that asked for reforms and a larger role for Indians in government.
One early spark for organised politics was the Ilbert Bill of 1883. It proposed letting Indian judges in Bengal try British subjects. Strong protests by Europeans forced the government to water it down, and many educated Indians saw this as clear proof of racial unfairness.
The Partition of Bengal
In 1905 the Viceroy Lord Curzon divided the large province of Bengal. The British said it was for easier administration. Many Indians saw it as a plan to divide people along religious lines. The partition took effect on 16 October 1905 and led to mass protests and a boycott of British goods, known as the Swadeshi movement. The partition was reversed in 1911.
New Political Groups and Reforms
In 1906 Muslim leaders met the new Viceroy, Lord Minto, and asked for separate electorates. The All India Muslim League was founded the same year. The Indian Councils Act of 1909, known as the Morley Minto Reforms, added more Indians to legislative councils and created separate electorates for Muslims.
Other groups also formed in these decades, including the Hindu Mahasabha and, in 1920, the Shiromani Akali Dal among Sikhs.
The Road to Freedom
After the First World War, tension grew. In April 1919 British troops fired on a large unarmed crowd at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. The official count was 379 dead, while the Congress said the number was much higher. The event turned many moderates against British rule.
In 1919 the government also passed the Rowlatt Act, which allowed some trials without juries and detention without trial in certain cases. Every Indian member of the Imperial Legislative Council opposed it, and the anger it caused brought Gandhi to the front of national politics.
Mahatma Gandhi then led mass campaigns, starting with non cooperation in 1920. The Government of India Act of 1935 gave provinces elected governments, and the future Constitution of India drew on it. In 1942 Congress launched the Quit India movement. Read more in our post on the Indian Independence Movement.
How the Raj Ended
The Raj ended in August 1947 when British India was divided into two new countries, India and Pakistan. Official ceremonies took place in Karachi on 14 August and in New Delhi on 15 August. Partition brought great violence, especially in Punjab. Estimates of deaths range from about 250,000 to 500,000, and millions of people moved across the new borders. See our post on independence and partition.
Students can remember the Raj in three phases: consolidation after 1857, the rise of Indian politics from 1885, and mass movements after 1919.
Many buildings from this era still stand in Indian cities, including railway stations, courts and colleges in Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Delhi.
Key Dates at a Glance
- 1858: Crown takes over from the East India Company.
- 1862: Indian Penal Code comes into force.
- 1876: Victoria proclaimed Empress of India.
- 1876 to 1878: Great Famine.
- 1885: Indian National Congress founded.
- 1905: Partition of Bengal.
- 1909: Morley Minto Reforms.
- 1911: Partition reversed and capital moved to Delhi.
- 1919: Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
- 1935: Government of India Act.
- 1947: Independence and partition.
What We Changed From the Old Post
The old post used strange word swaps and was hard to follow. We rewrote it in plain English and added clear headings.
We added how the Raj began, the princely states, the move of the capital, exact dates for the Penal Code, the Famine Codes, the founding of Congress, Jallianwala Bagh, the 1935 Act and the end of the Raj.
We removed growth and population figures that we could not confirm and gave famine deaths as ranges, since estimates differ.
Frequently Asked Questions
When did the British Raj start and end?
It began on 28 June 1858, after the 1857 revolt, and ended in August 1947 with independence and partition.
What does the word Raj mean?
Raj is a Hindustani word that means rule, reign or government.
Who ruled India during the British Raj?
The British Crown ruled through a Viceroy in India and a Secretary of State in London. Indian princes ruled the princely states under British supremacy.
Why was Bengal divided in 1905?
The British said it was for easier rule. Many Indians saw it as a way to divide people by religion, and it was reversed in 1911.